Anthelmintic Activity of Ethanolic and Aqueous Extracts of Khaya grandifoliola Stem Bark against Heligmosomoides polygyrus: In Vitro and In Silico Approaches

Background Parasitic infection remains a serious health trade for humans and livestock. The purpose of this study was to present scientific proof of the anthelmintic properties of Khaya grandifoliola, which the native population uses to cure helminthiasis. Method Fresh Heligmosomoides polygyrus eggs were isolated from faecal samples of experimentally infected mice. The faecal material was cultured, and L1 and L2 larval stages were recovered after 48 and 120 hours, respectively. Using the worm microtracker, the anthelminthic efficacy of the extracts against H. polygyrus was assessed. Two different extracts (aqueous and ethanol extracts) were prepared. For the ovicidal and larvicidal activities, 100 µL of various concentrations of plant extracts, levamisole and 1.5% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), were introduced into a 96-well microplate titer followed by the addition of 100 µL of embryonated eggs (60 eggs) for the ovicidal activity and 100 µL of L1 or L2 larvae (50 larvae) for the larvicidal activity. The movement of the worm was monitored for 24 hours in the worm microtracker at 27°C. The Glide module of the Schrodinger Maestro software was used to perform docking studies. Results For the aqueous extracts, the highest percentage of inhibition of hatching was 42.77 ± 12% at 7.5 mg/mL. The IC50 values for the ethanol (0.36 mg/mL) extract showed that the ethanol extract had a good inhibitory effect on the ability of parasites to hatch from eggs. The inhibition percentage of L1 larvae motility at 7.5 mg/mL was 98.0 ± 1.66% and 83.33 ± 1.66% for ethanol and aqueous extracts, respectively. The negative controls, distilled water and 1.5% DMSO, had no inhibitory impact on larvae. On L1-larvae, the drug of choice levamisole (positive control) had the highest percentage effect (100.0%). Six compounds had the highest docking score and their interactions with the receptor as well. Grandiamide A interacts most with tyrosine, glycine, phenylalanine, asparagine, and serine, and its benzene ring and oxygens inhibit these receptors. Carbonyl and hydroxyl (OH) groups connect grandiamide D to asparagine, isoleucine, and phenylalanine, respectively. By donating hydrogen to the receptor through OH groups, D-glucopyranose-6-phosphate also forms relatively strong hydrogen bonds with its oxygen-bound phosphorus and the receptor. 1-O-deacetylkhayanolide E interacts most with serine and glutamic acid. The carbamic acid benzyl ester of carbamic acid [(1S)-1-phenyl-2-[(4-methylphenyl) sulfinyl] ethyl] interacts most with the receptor with carbonyl groups and with asparagine and serine. With its abundant hydroxide, D-mannitol acts as a hydrogen donor and acceptor and interacts most strongly with amino acids such as glycine, asparagine, aspartic acid, alanine, and glutamic acid. Conclusions K. grandifoliola extracts possess anthelminthic properties. However, in vivo studies are still necessary to demonstrate the effectiveness of this plant for the treatment of helminthiasis.


Introduction
Globally, parasitic infections continue to be a serious health concern [1].Tese diseases are more prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, where the risk of infection is increased due to poor sanitary conditions and limited access to synthetic medications [1,2].Te recent ignoring of helminthiasis in favour of the human immunodefciency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodefciency syndrome (AIDS), malaria, and tuberculosis as they devastate the health of nearly 1.5 billion people.Tis resulted in very little study being carried out on helminths; hence, they are registered as neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) [3].
Twenty-four percent (24%) of the world's population sufers from geohelminths, according to Mekonnen et al. [4].Generally referred to as soil-transmitted helminth (STH), the parasites that cause these infections are Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and Necator americanus/ Ancylostoma duodenale.More than 267 million preschool children and 568 million schoolchildren live in areas where the transmission of these parasites is intense in sub-Saharan African nations, America, China, and East Asia [5].
According to studies, gastrointestinal helminth infections afect an estimated 10 million people in Cameroon, where soil-transmitted helminths are widely dispersed throughout the nation [6].It primarily afects school-aged children, jeopardizing their growth, intellectual development, and academic performance.Tese infections also increase their vulnerability to other infections such as HIV/ AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis [7].Common symptoms associated with parasitic helminthiasis include malnutrition, anaemia, diarrhoea, asthenia, lethargy, and anorexia that compromise human and animal health [8].
Patients often employ synthetic anthelmintic medications to control these parasitic diseases.But, regrettably, the poor usage of synthetic drugs and the nonrespect doses have led to the development of resistance [9].Furthermore, some of the synthetic drugs have side efects [10].Medicinal plants remain one of the most reliable solutions to address the issue of synthetic drug resistance, adverse efects, and high cost.Furthermore, they are less toxic to the environment since they exist naturally in the environment [11].However, indigens have little or no knowledge about the use of these plants, and when they do, the spectrum or the extent to which such plant products can act is unknown.Tis limits the exploitation of the therapeutic virtues of these plants.Terefore, a systematic screening of their anthelminthic activity against a wide range of helminths may be of great signifcance to the local population as well as to the pharmaceutical industry.It is in this regard that we focused our research towards the search for plants endowed with pharmacological properties against disease-causing helminths.Since ancient times, herbal treatment has been used to limit the emergence of parasite resistance [12].According to some researchers, phytochemicals that have anthelmintic activity, such as glycosides, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, and favonoids, are important [13,14].
Khaya grandifoliola, also called African mahogany, is widely used in African folk medicine due to its pharmacological relevance.Traditional healers in Cameroon treat helminthiasis through the use of plants.Guy-Armand et al. [15] demonstrated antiplasmodial and cytotoxicity activity of this plant.Tere was another discovery that stem bark had antiulcer properties, antianaemic, hypoglycaemic, and hypoproteinaemic efects [16].K. grandifoliola has a gum that is used as a tablet binder for paracetamol [17].Several extracts are safe at diferent therapeutic dosages, according to toxicity testing [18].
Traditionally, in vitro screening methods for parasitic worms have been limited by their lack of computerization and reproducibility [19].Te worm Heligmosomoides polygyrus is a parasite that is similar in all aspects to human nematodes and hence is used as a model for anthelminthic drug discovery [20].Te purpose of this study was to provide scientifc evidence on the anthelmintic activities of K. grandifoliola used by the local community as a helminthiasis therapy.

Materials and Methods
2.1.Helminth Parasite.Pr.Rick Maizels of the University of Edinburgh in the United Kingdom kindly provided the infectious third-stage larvae (L3) of H. polygyrus.H. polygyrus is a parasitic nematode that serves as a mouse model for the assessment of anthelminthic medications and replicates the infection caused by strongylid nematodes [20,21].

Collection and Identifcation of Plant Species.
K. grandifoliola's leaves, fowers, and fruits were collected in the western region of Cameroon in the dry season of December 2023 and recognized by the National Herbarium using the voucher specimen number 52658/HNC.

Preparation of Extracts.
Because traditional healers during the survey told us that they use fermented palm wine (ethanol) or infusion for the preparation of this medicine, we decided to prepare ethanol and aqueous extracts.One kilogram of the fresh sample of the stem back was collected.After drying and grinding the stem bark, we had 670 g of powder.Te aqueous and ethanol extracts were made using the procedure outlined by Wabo et al. [22].In brief, one litter 2 Journal of Tropical Medicine of 95% ethanol was mixed with 100 g of plant powder and homogenized.Te mixture was mixed daily for 72 hours.Whatman paper number 1 and cotton were used to flter the homogenate.Te fltrate was dried in an oven at 40 °C to remove the ethanol.For the aqueous extract, 100 grams of powder were mixed with one litter of warm distilled water and the mixture was then allowed to cool before being fltered through cotton and Whatman paper number 1.After that, the fltrate (100 ml) was poured into a steel tray and dried in a convection oven at 45 °C until a constant dry mass (dried aqueous extract) was obtained [23].

Collecting and Concentrating H. polygyrus-Embryonated
Eggs.Te fotation technique was used for collecting the eggs from faecal samples containing H. polygyrus [24].In brief, the eggs obtained from the fotation technique were centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 10 min after being rinsed with distilled water to wash the salt from the egg.After a series of washings of the eggs, which was meant to extract the salt solution, the salt-free eggs were then incubated for 24 hours to obtain embryonated eggs for the assay.

2.5.
Coproculture and Retrieval of L1 and L2 Larvae of H. polygyrus.Embryonated eggs were then incubated at 25 °C for 24 and 72 hours in order to produce L1 and L2 larvae, respectively, according to the method described by Cédric et al. [20].Te larvae were distinguished according to their shape.

Preparation of Diferent Concentrations of Extracts.
A stock solution of concentration 15 mg/mL was prepared by weighing 0.15 g of extract using an electronic balance and mixed with 10 mL of distilled water in a 50 mL beaker.
Another stock solution of a concentration of 10 mg/mL was obtained from the 15 mg/mL stock solution.Tis mixture was homogenized using a vortex mixer and then sonicated (to facilitate the dissociation of the extract).By successive dilutions, we obtained solutions with concentrations of 0.625 mg/mL, 1.25 g/mL, 2.5 mg/mL, 5.0 mg/mL, and 7.5 mg/mL.Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), which aids in dissolving the ethanol extract, was combined with the same amount of dry extract for the ethanol extract to obtain the same concentrations.

Egg-Hatching Test.
Te approach outlined by Cédric et al. [20,24] was used to assess the extract's anthelminthic efcacy.In 96-well round bottom microtiter plates, 100 µL of 60 embryonated eggs were put in contact with 100 µL of the extract at various concentrations (15, 10, 5, 2.5, and 1.25 mg/mL) to obtain fnal concentrations ranging from 7.5 to 0.625 mg/mL in a fnal volume of 200 µL.Five molar (5 M) levamisole and 1.5% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) were used as positive and negative controls, respectively.Te plate was subsequently incubated in the worm microtracker, a device that monitors worm movement.Once hatching occurred, the continuous movements of larvae in each well were recorded by the worm microtracker.Using the following formula, the percentage of inhibition of egg-hatching was determined [25]: % inhibition � mobility activity of negative control − mobility activity of the test sample mobility activity of negative control × 100. (1) 2.8.Larval Motility Assays.Te larvicidal activity of the extract against L 1 and L 2 was evaluated using the approach outlined by Cédric et al. [20,24].One hundred microliters of 50 L1 larvae were put in contact with the extract at various concentrations (7.5 to 0.3125 mg/mL) in 96-well round bottom microtiter plates.Levamisole and 1.5% DMSO were used as positive and negative controls, respectively.Te worm microtracker, a device that measures worm motility, was then used to incubate the 96-well microtiter plate.Te percentage of inhibition of larvae motility was determined [26].Te same procedure was used to evaluate the efects of the extracts on L2 larvae.
2.9.Phytochemical Screening.Te screening of the aqueous and ethanol extracts of K. grandifoliola for phenol and favonoids, as well as for sterols, alkaloids, triterpenoids, saponins, anthocyanins, and anthraquinones was performed quantitatively and qualitatively, as previously reported by Guy-Armand et al. [15].

Preparation of the Ligand.
Using Maestro, which was designed to supply input structures for the Glide and PHASE modules, the ligand was prepared using the Ligand Preparation [27] module.With the help of special algorithms, Clean Up Wizard can handle one ligand per second at a time, efciently transforming massive datasets from 2D to 3D structures and crucial docking study processes.

Molecular Docking.
Based on information from several publications, the anthelmintic receptor protein [28,29] as shown in Figures 1(a) and 1(b), the tubulin alpha-1B chain was selected as the traditional target for a variety of anthelmintic drugs in this investigation.Te structure of Caenorhabditis elegans tubulin was downloaded from the Protein Data Bank (PDB ID: 6E88) portal.Hydrogen bonds matching pH 7.4 were added after crystallographic water molecules, or those without 3H bonds were eliminated, taking into account the proper ionization states for basic and acid amino acid residues.Te crystal structure's energy was minimized using the OPLS_2005 force feld [30].Approximately 117 K. grandifoliola ligands were used to construct the coupling, and the location of this protein was identifed using the programs Glide and Sitemap [31].
Te tubulin alpha-1B chain's grid box generation was handled using Maestro's Glide software, specifcally the receptor grid generation part.We take advantage of Maestro's Sitemap program since it can anticipate the receptor's active location.Ultimately, for the active site of the Te Glide module of the Schrodinger Maestro software was used to conduct the docking studies [27].Te software score function was used to classify and rank several potential adduct structures produced by molecular docking [32].It makes predictions about the three-dimensional structure of any complex based on the binding characteristics of the ligand and target.Docking is the process of predicting the direction and conformation of a ligand within a particular binding site.Te "protein preparation wizard" in Maestro Wizard was used to preprocess the protein structure.By autonomously constructing the module's state and refnement step phases, hydrogen atoms and a few necessary bonds were added to the missing protein molecule.Following the optimization procedure, the construction of receptor grids was handled, and the docking scores were examined using various docked ligand conformations [33,34].
2.12.Statistical Analysis.Te results were analysed using GraphPad Prism version 8.0, a statistical tool.Te IC 50 was determined using the concentration-response curves that were produced by plotting the logarithm of the concentration as a function of the percentage inhibition.It is important to use the IC 50 value because it indicates how much a drug is needed to inhibit a biological process by half.Te Glide module of the Schrodinger Maestro software was used to perform docking studies.Te software's score function was used to classify and rank various potential adduct structures produced by molecular docking.

Anthelminthic Test.
Te efect of ethanol and aqueous extracts of K. grandifoliola on the inhibitory percentage (%), hatching, and inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) of larvae motility is shown in Table 1.
Aqueous extracts had the highest percentage of hatching inhibition (42.77 ± 12%) at the concentration of 7.5 mg/mL.While at 0.625 mg/mL concentration, the lowest percentage of hatching inhibition of 6.77 ± 3.33% and 10.0 ± 2.89% was obtained for ethanol and aqueous extracts, respectively.A 100% hatching in distilled water and 1.5% DMSO suggests that the plant extract afected the worm.As the concentration increased, the percentage of inhibition of egg-hatching increased correspondingly.
Te IC 50 value for the ethanol (0.36 mg/mL) extract showed that the ethanol extract had a strong inhibitory efect on the ability of the parasites to hatch from the eggs.Based on the analysis of this table, the concentration of 7.5 mg/mL resulted in the highest percentage of inhibition in L1 larvae, 98.0 ± 1.66% for the ethanol extract, and 83.33 ± 1.66% for the aqueous extract, respectively.At 0.625 mg/mL, the lowest percentage of inhibition was observed, with the ethanol and aqueous extract showing 75 ± 8.66% and 21.67 ± 10.93% inhibition, respectively.At the maximum degree of inhibition, there was no signifcant diference in their levels of inhibition; however, at the lowest percentage of inhibition, there was a signifcant diference.As the concentration increases, so does the percentage of inhibition.
As seen by the mean inhibition percentages of 0% for both distilled water and 1.5% dimethyl sulfoxide (negative control), the negative controls did not show any inhibitory efect on the larvae.Te medication of preference (positive control), levamisole, had the highest proportion (100.0%) of L1-larvae.According to this value, levamisole inhibits the development of H. polygyrus L1 larvae.Te IC 50 values for ethanol and aqueous extracts for L1 larvae were 9.938 mg/mL and 0.0001467 mg/mL, respectively, according to this table.Tis clearly demonstrated that the ethanol extract was less efective than the aqueous extract.With a signifcant diference (p < 0.0001), the concentration of 7 mg/mL of ethanol and aqueous extracts showed the highest mean   Journal of Tropical Medicine inhibition rates in L2 larvae, at 98.32.9% and 83.32.9%, respectively.Levamisole showed 100% inhibition, while distilled water and 1.5% dimethyl sulfoxide (negative control) did not impact.In L2 larvae, the aqueous and ethanol extracts showed inhibitory percentages of 21.67 ± 18.52% and 75 ± 15%, respectively, at the lowest dose of 0.625 mg/mL.Tere was a signifcant diference in terms of their inhibition at both the highest and lowest levels of inhibition.Te percentage of inhibition increases with increasing concentration.With an IC 50 for L2 larvae of 0.1937 mg/mL while that of the aqueous extract was undetermined.

Te Phytochemical Screening.
Similar to the ethanol extract, saponins are absent, but all other constituents are present.Te aqueous extract had 162.2 ± 48.20 mg/g of favonoids, and the ethanol extract had a favonoid concentration of 448.9 68.85 mg/g.Similar to this, the ethanol extract contained more phenolic chemicals (631.916.44 mg/ g) than the aqueous extract (372.47.328 mg/g).

Anthelminthic Molecular Docking Analysis.
Molecular docking between components (ligands) and the target protein was carried out using the Glide module [35,36].Te docking scores of the tubulin alpha-1B chain and ligands are displayed in Table 2. On the basis of the examination of this table, it may be inferred that certain ligands exhibited elevated docking scores during their interactions with the target protein's amino acids.As can be observed in Figure 1, which illustrates the impact of this molecule's hydrophobic chain, the purple arrows represent the negative bonds of the ligands, while the green arrows represent hydrophobic interactions [37,38].HTVS, SP, and XP molecular docking techniques were utilized to screen the chemicals that were isolated from K. grandifoliola.15% of the most stable ligands with docking scores were examined in each phase.Te most stable ligand structures were selected using the XP docking score approach.
Figure 2 shows the six compounds that had the highest docking score and their interactions with the receptor as well.Grandiamide A interacts most with tyrosine, glycine, phenylalanine, asparagine, and serine, and its benzene ring and oxygens inhibit these receptors.Carbonyl and hydroxyl groups connect grandiamide D to asparagine, ile, and phenylalanine, respectively.By donating hydrogen to the receptor through OH groups, Dglucopyranose-6-P also forms relatively strong hydrogen bonds with its oxygen-bound phosphorus and the receptor.1-O-Deacetylkhayanolide E interacts most with serine and glutamic acid.Te carbamic acid benzyl ester of carbamic acid [(1S)-1-phenyl-2-[(4-methylphenyl) sulfnyl] ethyl] interacts most with the receptor with carbonyl groups and with asparagine and serine.With its abundant OH, D-mannitol acts as a hydrogen donor and acceptor and interacts most strongly with amino acids such as glycine, asparagine, aspartic acid, alanine, and glutamic acid.

Discussion
Te egg-hatching mechanism was not highly suppressed by both the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of K. grandifoliola, and the ethanol extract had the strongest efects (IC 50 � 0.36 mg/mL).It is possible that the inability of the K. grandifoliola extract to suppress the events leading up to hatching is the cause of these low ovicidal inhibition percentages.Te permeability properties of the eggshell and the concentration of trehalose in the perivitelline fuid are two examples of parameters that afect hatching and are crucial for the survival of the egg, unhatched juveniles [39].Our extracts were unable to afect any of these indicators.
Tese fndings are in contradiction to those of Zangueu et al. [40], who found that extracts of Maytenus senegalensis extracts inhibited egg-hatching, leading to an ovicidal efect with a signifcant (p < 0.01), concentration-dependent suppression of egg-hatching (p < 0.01).Te 100% hatching in the presence of distilled water and 1.5% DMSO suggest that they have no infuence on hatching.Ngouateu Teufack et al. [41] reported similar results.According to Ngouateu Teufack et al. [41], dimethyl sulfoxide and Tween 80 are frequently used as vehicles in the anthelminthic screening of medicinal plants because they do not have any efect on egg-hatching and larvae at concentrations less than 10%.Subedi [42] suggests that the tannins in K. senegalensis extract may be the cause of the anthelmintic activities observed in vitro.According to Greifer et al. [43], tannin binding caused an increase in the stifness of the worms' cuticle.Tis could be a crucial discovery to explain a number of anthelmintic behaviours linked to tannins, including inhibition of motility and molting or exsheathing.
When investigated in vitro, the anthelmintic activity of two commercial products containing tannins and the common forage plant sainfoin both demonstrated  [44].Te presence of secondary metabolites such as saponins is shown by phytochemical screening and does not necessarily indicate an anthelminthic activity because not all saponins have anthelminthic activities [45].Te saponins aescin and digitonin, as shown by Santos et al. [45], have a strong in vitro anthelmintic action, and the glycone component of both saponins is crucial to this activity.Te development of H. polygyrus hatching structures, such as the protractible stylet, which is required to open the eggshell during hatching, may not have been suppressed by plant extracts explaining this poor hatching activity.An earlier study by Cédric et al. [24] found that the ethanol extract was more active than the aqueous.Both ethanol and water are polar solvents that can be used to extract diferent polar compounds present in plants.It is possible to extract components that are soluble in water and oil using ethanol.Tis could be explained by the superior ovicidal activity of the ethanol extract over that of the aqueous.
Te mean larval motility rate decreases as the concentration increases from 0.625 mg/mL to 7.5 mg/mL.Tese fndings are comparable to those of Kolapo et al. [46], who found that the ethyl acetate fraction (80 mg/mL + Tween 80) and the crude extract of K. grandifoliola at 200 mg/mL and 400 mg/mL both had 100% anthelmintic activity compared to the standard (5 mg of levamisole).
Troughout this investigation, we discovered that L2 larvae were more sensitive to extracts than L1 larvae.Tese results were consistent with past Ngouateu reports [41].Tese scientists claim that because the L1 stages have just recently hatched, they still have some food or energy reserved.As time passes, this food and energy are depleted, increasing the sensitivity of the stages to the substances under study.In the late eluting fractions of the methanolic extract of K. senegalensis leaves, Subedi [42] found three limonoids: mahonin (1), methyl angolensate (2), and a new molecule called 16-oxodelevoyin B (3). Mahonin (1) was the most active of the three limonoids, all of which showed anthelmintic bioactivity.Te extracts may have a larvicidal efect because they difuse through the cuticle of the larvae.Te fndings of da Rocha et al. [47] are supported by this outcome.
According to Moussouni, et al. [48], the paralysation observed in the larvae is due to the blockage of receptors by the extract at the postsynaptic membrane level, therefore inhibiting the transmission of nerve impulses.Te larvicidal activity of the extracts may also be due to compounds such as tannins, which interact with membrane-associated sterols at the level of the cuticle, disrupting cell permeability [49].
Similar to our fndings, in a study conducted by China et al. on larval migration and adult motility, K. senegalensis methanolic extract had the highest level of efcacy [50].Tese authors state that the lethal efect was dose-dependent and that, when exposed to 2400 μg/mL of the acetonic extract or 1200 μg/ml of the methanolic extract of K. senegalensis, respectively, 75% and 100% of the worms were deactivated within 24 hours.Secondary metabolites are found by phytochemical screening and may be the cause of the ovicidal and larvicidal efects.Other researchers, such as [24,51,52], have shown that certain phytochemical components, such as carotenoids, triterpenes, saponins, steroids, coumarins, tannins, glycosides, enzymes, anthraquinones, essential oils, lipids, protein, and fbers, must be present for a plant to have the anthelminthic activity.
Considering the antihelminthic efect of K. grandifoliola plant extract and its evidence in a recent article, its molecular docking studies, which have been investigated regarding the inhibitory efect on tubulin alpha-1B chain protein and ligand by ligand, show that the efect can be greater due to the presence of compounds such as grandiamide A, grandiamide D, D-glucopyranose-6-P, 1-O-deacetylkhayanolide E, as well as [(1S)-1-phenyl-2-[(4-methylphenyl) sulfnyl [ethyl] carbaci acid benzyl ester.As a result, we can conclude that the compounds in K. grandifoliola have better antihelminthic properties than other compounds on the basis of the results of the molecular docking studies.

Conclusions
Te present study showed that L2 larvae were more sensitive to extracts than L1 larvae and the extract had good larvicidal activities.Furthermore, K. grandifoliolas have several compounds such as grandiamide A, grandiamide D, Dglucopyranose-6-P, 1-O-deacetylkhayanolide E, as well as [(1S)-1-phenyl-2-[(4-methylphenyl) sulfnyl [ethyl] carboxylic acid benzyl ester which presented a very powerful anthelmintic activity docking score.None of these compounds had been seriously considered important in the feld of parasitology.Tis suggests that these extracts can be used to treat helminthiasis.

Limitation of the Present Findings.
To scientifcally support the use of K. grandifoliola in Cameroonian folk medicine in the fght against helminths in vivo, toxicity research is necessary.

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: (a) Ramachandran plot of the tubulin alpha-1B chain and (b) optimized tubulin alpha-1B chain with the optimized active site.
, c, . ..: for the same row and diferent concentrations, the values that carry the same superscript letter are not signifcantly diferent from the negative control at p < 0.05.DMSO: dimethyl sulfoxide.

Table 1 :
Efect of ethanol and aqueous extracts of K. grandifoliola on the inhibitory percentage (%), hatching, and inhibitory concentration (IC

Table 2 :
Docking scores of the ligands and the tubulin alpha-1B chain.